Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis - Volume 127, Issue 4, 2014

New Diplomatic History in the Premodern Age. An Introduction

The study of medieval and early modern diplomacy has long been considered one of the most conservative subdisciplines in the field of history. During the last three decades, however, diplomatic history has undergone profound changes. This introductory article shows how these changes were triggered by developments in other disciplines and happened under the influence of the cultural turn. Until recently most general histories of diplomacy were based on the conceptions of Donald Queller and, more particularly, of Garrett Mattingly. Scholars working on medieval and early modern history have applied new international relations theories and moved away from analyses that were strictly oriented towards diplomatic relations between sovereign territorial states. The cultural turn gave rise to a range of innovations in diplomatic history, leading historians to focus on the diplomatic process and its cultural dimensions rather than on the results of diplomatic activity. The special issue for which this article serves as an introduction shows that historians working in the Netherlands have also been influenced by these developments.

A passion for palaver. Brabantine diplomatic activity, c. 1400

Long before the Italian Renaissance laid the foundations of the modern diplomatic system, states maintained well-structured diplomatic relations. This article describes how these worked in practice between medium-sized territorial principalities. Its basis is the diplomatic paper trail left by two political issues c.1400 that caused much ado in the Low Countries: the attempts of Anthony of Burgundy, duke of Brabant and Limburg, to obtain the ducal title of Luxembourg, and the war between Albert I, duke of Bavaria, count of Holland, and his son Willem, count of Oostervant.

Personal agency, borders and political units in the fourteenth century. The duchy of Guelders and the history of international relations

Theories that offer a historicized account of international relations often consider the late middle ages as a period of fundamental change. Territorial political units, geographically defined borders, and distinctions between internal and external gradually developed and became increasingly important. As a result international relations were not only governed by competition between individual lords, by feudal networks, or by imperial and papal universalism, but also by the agency of newly developing geopolitical units, such as kingdoms, territories, towns, and local lordships. On the basis of the Guelders War of Succession (1371-1379) this paper offers a snapshot of this process of transition, demonstrating the dense and composite nature of international relations during the fourteenth century in the western part of the Holy Roman Empire.

Copy that. The forms and functions of copies in the late medieval letter exchange of Hanseatic towns

This article argues that copies distributed as part of the political communication in northern Europe were more than a substitute for the originals or simply an efficient way of spreading information. The case of the Hanseatic towns shows that copies could be refined instruments of diplomacy: they could be a way to express inclusion, support, or openness and impartiality, to give a favour, or show willingness to resolve a conflict. Equally, a copy could exclude, put under pressure, obscure, or manipulate, and even lead to serious conflicts. Circulating copies – or deciding not to circulate them – was a conscious, complex choice made by town councils, individuals, and also rulers. In this analysis a distinction is made between diachronic and synchronic copies, since there were differences in their form and intended functions.

The diplomatic battle over precedence between France and Spain by way of arguments, 1564-1610

Conflicts over precedence were a disruptive but integral part of European diplomacy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This article will explain both the insolubility and the importance of such conflicts, by analyzing the actual arguments made by French and Spanish publicists between 1564 and 1610 who argued for the supremacy of their own king. This analysis shows that national concepts of kingship were central to their reasoning: they identified the most characteristic features of their own brand of kingship and presented these as the criteria by which to construct international hierarchy. This meant first that no consensus was possible, either on the international order itself, or on the criteria to be used; and second, that not only princes, but also diplomats, lawyers, and historians were deeply involved in these conflicts.

Consuls and Dutch Diplomacy in Spain, 1648-1661

This article investigates the position of the consuls in the diplomatic network of the Dutch Republic as defenders of the interests of Dutch merchants and as quasi-public officials. Although consuls did not enjoy diplomatic status, Dutch consular practice in Spain between the Peace of Munster (1648) and 1661 shows that they were more than suppliers of economic, political, and military intelligence. Consuls were a vital connecting element in Dutch diplomacy and could affect the States General’s policy towards Spain by exerting influence on politicians at home and on Dutch diplomats abroad.

Public opinion, foreign policy, and the end of the War of the Spanish Succession

Did public opinion have an impact on foreign policy in early modern times? States put in much effort publicly to legitimize their foreign policy. But they did not always prevent open discussion. England during the War of the Spanish Succession is a case in point. The revolution of 1688-9, the growing influence of parliament on foreign policy, opportunities for political journalism, and different views about how to end the war made public debate a matter of political importance. Pamphlets and public addresses expressed various opinions. May we call this ‘public opinion’? How should we define this concept? And were public opinion and decision-making in some way related? This case improves our understanding of public opinion and foreign policy: it seems after all that public opinion in England did indeed hasten the end of the War of the Spanish Succession.